前言：本站為你精心整理了英語委婉語分類范文，希望能為你的創(chuàng)作提供參考價值，我們的客服老師可以幫助你提供個性化的參考范文，歡迎咨詢。

AbstractAsanindispensableandnaturalpartofEnglishlanguage,Englisheuphemismshaveexistedforalongtime.Theappearanceofeverything,includingeuphemism,hasitsreasons.TheemergenceofEnglisheuphemismshasacloserelationwithlanguagetaboosandreligion.SinceEnglisheuphemismsplayanimportantroleinsocialcommunication,theyworthcarefulandthoroughstudy.Thispaperwillmainlydealwiththeformation,classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms.

VariousmethodshavebeenusedtoformEnglisheuphemisms,includingphoneticdevices,spellingdevices,vocabularydevices,grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices.

ThepaperalsotriestoclassifyEnglisheuphemismsaccordingtothecontent.Englisheuphemismsarealmostemployedinallfieldsoflifesuchasinthefieldofdailylife,inthefieldofeducation,inthefieldoflaw,inthefieldofpolitics,andinthefieldofcommerceandindustry.

Fromthedaytheycameintobeing,Englisheuphemismsplaytheroleofsociallubricator.Withoutthem,theworldwillbefullofconflictsandthesocialorderwillbeinchaos.ThefunctionofEnglisheuphemismsisdiversified.Besidesevasion,Englisheuphemismsnowarealsousedforpoliteness,eleganceanddisguise.

KeyWordsEnglisheuphemism;formation;classification;socialfunction

委婉語是人類語言中的一種普遍現(xiàn)象，其存在的歷史相當(dāng)悠久。任何事物的出現(xiàn)總有其原因，委婉語當(dāng)然也不例外。委婉語的出現(xiàn)是與語言禁忌息息相關(guān)的。英語委婉語在交際中起著十分重要的作用，因此值得深入的學(xué)習(xí)和研究。本文主要從英語委婉語的構(gòu)成方式、分類和社會功能來進(jìn)行闡述。英語委婉語的構(gòu)成方式多種多樣包括語音手段、語法手段、修辭手段等。論文還試圖根據(jù)英語委婉語的內(nèi)容對其應(yīng)用范圍進(jìn)行歸類。英語委婉語涉及生活的方方面面，既有日常生活中的委婉語又有教育和法律委婉語以及政治委婉語與商業(yè)和工業(yè)領(lǐng)域委婉語。從其誕生之日起，英語委婉語就肩負(fù)著社會潤滑劑這項重任。可以預(yù)見假如沒有委婉語人際交往中將會增加許多摩擦和矛盾。英語委婉語具有多樣化的功能。除了避諱，它還具有禮貌、求雅、掩飾等功能。

關(guān)鍵字英語委婉語;構(gòu)成方式;分類;社會功能

1.Introduction

Euphemismshaveexistedforalongtime.Theword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreekword“Euphemia”.Theprefix“eu-”means“good”,thestem“pheme”means“speech”or“saying”.Manypeoplehavedefinedeuphemism.Herearesomeofthedefinitions.

(1)“(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones.”1

(2)“apolitewordorexpressionthatyouuseinsteadofamoredirectonetoavoidshockingorupsettingsomeone.”2

(3)“alessdirectwordusedinsteadofonethatisharshorbluntwhenreferringtosomethingunpleasantorembarrassing.”3

(4)“Substitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone;Expressionthussubstituted.”4

(5)“apolitewordorexpressionthatpeopleusetotalkaboutsomethingunpleasantorembarrassing,suchasdeathandsex.”5

(6)“Aeuphemismisusedasanalternativetoadispreferredexpression,inordertoavoidpossiblelossofface:Eitherone’sownfaceor,throughgivingoffence,thatoftheaudience,orofsomethirdparty.”6

Justastheabovedefinitionsstate,someharsh,blunt,unpleasantoroffensivethingsinlifeshouldnotbestateddirectlyandtruthfullyincertainoccasions.Underthesecircumstances,somebetter-soundingnamesshouldbeused.Euphemismisapartofhumanlanguageaswellasapsychologicalandculturalphenomenonofdifferentnations.TheusageofEnglisheuphemismreflectsethicsandbehavioralcodeofpeopleinEnglish-speakingcountries.Fromthedayitcameintobeing,euphemismfunctionsasthelubricatorofcommunication.Thusitenablespeopletoliveinharmonyandmakesconversationssmoothandsuccessful.

Thefollowingpartsholdadiscussionontheorigin,formation,classificationandsocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms.

2.TheoriginofEnglisheuphemisms

“Euphemismisthelinguisticreflectionofsocialpsychologyandaproductofsocialandculturalenvironment.”7“Inwesternnations,theusageofeuphemismsinearlytimesoriginatedfromreligionoradmiresanddreadofgods.”8Itsearlieremergencehadacloserelationtolanguagetaboosandreligion.

Inancientsociety,asthelevelofproductivityandsciencewasverylow,peoplefailedtoexplaintheessenceofsomenaturalphenomenasuchaslighteningandthunder.Theycametobelievethatthereweresomesupernaturalpowers,ortheexistenceofdevilsandgodsthatcontrolledtheirlivesandeven

thewholeworld.Theydarednottomentionthenamesofthedevilsandgodsdirectly,justastheidiomgoes“Speakofthedevilandheappears.”Thus,languagetabooscameintobeing.Tofindasolutiontothisproblem,peopleusedothernamesthatis,euphemismstosubstitutethenamesofthosethingstheyfearedincircumstancesthattheyhadtospeakofthem.Becauseoftheusageofeuphemisms,peoplefeltthattheyweresomewhatdistantfromwhattheywereafraidofandtheirsafety,happiness,healthandgoodluckwereguaranteed.Thoughitisaratheroldreligiouscustom,itstillexertsastronginfluenceonmodernwesternnations.

Asweallknow,themajorityofthepopulationofEnglish-speakingcountriesbelievesinGodconsciouslyorunconsciously,andtheythinkthatGodexistseverywhereandhasunlimitedpower.WordsrelatedtoGodandreligioncanonlybeusedinreligiousceremonies.SincethenameofGodisregardedastheavatarofGoditself,peopleusuallyuse“theLord”toreplaceit.Besides,Jesusiseuphemizedas“Gee”,“jeepers”,“jiminy”,“Cricket”or“Criminet”;and“thedeuce”,“thedickens”or“OldNick”substitutes“theDevil”.

3.TheformationofEnglisheuphemisms

VariousdevicesareemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.

3.1Phoneticdevices

PhoneticdistortionisacommonmeanstoformEnglisheuphemism.Forexample,Peopleuse“Gad”,“Goodness”,“Gosh”,and“Golly”toreplace“God”anduse“cripes”toreplace“Christ”inordertoshowrespect.Assonanceisanotherimportantmeanstoformeuphemisms.Forexample,“‘a(chǎn)coffinshop’iseuphemizedas‘a(chǎn)coffeeshop’,for‘coffin’and‘coffee’havesimilarityinsound.”9RhymingslangisalsoemployedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.Slangisveryinformalandhaslocalcolor.Itwasoriginallyusedbyworkingpeople.Now,someslangwordshavebeenacceptedinStandardEnglishandusedaseuphemisms.Forexample,“Bristolcities”isfor“breasts”;“graspandgrunt”isrhymingslangfor“cunt”and“tealeaf”isfor“thief”.

3.2Spellingdevices

3.2.1Abbreviations

Someeuphemismsareabbreviations.Forexample,“VD”isfor“venerealdisease”;“BO”isfor“bodyodor”;“BM”substitutes“bowelmovement”;“WC”substitutes“watercloset”;“OD”replaces“totakeanoverdose”,etc.

3.2.2Reinterpretationofinitials

ReinterpretationofinitialsisalsousedtoformEnglisheuphemisms.Forexample,“hotandcold”isaroundaboutexpressionfor“heroinandcocaine”.“hot”and“heroin”havethesameinitial“h”and“cold”and“cocaine”havethesameinitial“c”,but“hotandcold”soundslessaccurateandindirect.

3.3vocabularydevices

3.3.1Loanwords

Borrowingistheuseofloanwordsinordertoavoidtaboos.“Itisthoughtthatloanwordshavefewnegativemeaningandsensitiveassociations,sothattheysoundmoreneutralandpleasant.”10

Hereisalistofdirectexpressionsandtheirrespectiveeuphemisms.

“EnglishFrenchLatin

smellscent

stinkodor

fatrotund

sick/illindisposed

lieprevaricate

spitexpectorate

sweatperspire”11

Asweallknow,in43A.D.RomanEmpireconqueredEnglandandbroughtLatintoEnglandandLatinbecameofficiallanguageinEngland.AftertheNormanConquestin1066,FrenchbecamethegovernmentallanguageinEngland.ButFrenchandLatinwereonlyspokenbytheupperclasses,andamongthelowclassesEnglishwasspoken.Theupperclassesheldtheviewthatwordsusedbythemselvesweresuperiortothoseusedbythelowclasses.SotheyusedFrenchorLatinwordstoreplaceunpleasantEnglishwords.LaterpeopleacceptedtheviewthatFrenchandLatinwordsaremoreeuphemisticthanEnglishwords.

3.3.2Usingupliftingwords

UpliftingwordscanmakeonefeelhappierormorehopefulsotheyareusedquitefrequentlyinmodernEnglishasanimportantmeanstoeuphemizethingsrelatedtothehumblesocialclass.Themainpurposeofusingtheseeuphemismsistomakemenialjobssounddecent.Forexample,peoplereplace“waiters”or“waitresses”by“thediningroomattendants”,“l(fā)andscapeworker”by“l(fā)andscapearchitect”,“garbageman”by“sanitaryengineer”,andsubstitute“butcher”with“meattechnologist”.Generallyspeaking,informingeuphemismtheruleofusingwordsthatareeasyontheearsisobservedforthepurposeofconsolation.Throughusingupliftingwords,theembarrassingfactsareembellishedandnolongerunpleasant.

33.3Usingvaguewordsorexpressions

Inmodernwesterncountries,vaguewordsorexpressionsareusedinalmostallthefields.“Ifaneighboringgirlhasachildbeforemarriage,peoplewillcommentlikethis:‘Shehasanaccident.’Theword

accident’isveryvague.Ifapersoncameacrossadisasteranddied,peoplewillalsouse‘a(chǎn)ccident’todescribehissituation.Theymaysay:‘Hehasmetwithanaccident.’”12Inschoolastudentmaysaytoateacher:“Sorry!Ihavetodomybusiness”whenhewantstogotothewashingroom.Besides,“amanofbadtaste”iscalled“amanofdoubtfultaste”;and“homosexual”isreplacedby“queer”.“Itisnowonderthateuphemismisnamedweaselwords.”13

3.3.4Usingcountrynames

Namesofsomecountriesareusedtosubstituteuncomfortablethings.Forexample,“Dutchcourage”replaces“weakcourage”,thatis,couragethatcomesfromdrinkingalcohol;and“Dutchuncle”isfor“unpleasantrelative”.WeallknowthattherewasawarbetweenBritainandDutchin17thcentury.Fromthenon,hatredexistedamongpeopleinthesetwonations.AndEnglishmenusedeverychancetomakejokeofDutch.BesidesDutch,Franceisalsousedtoformeuphemismslike“Frenchnovels”for“pornnovels”and“Frenchletters”for“condom”.Andpeopleuse“Frenchdevices/methods”orsimply“Frenchise”toreplacemethodsofbirthcontrol.PeopleinBritainbanterFrenchbecausetheywereonceruledbyit.

3.4Grammaticaldevices

Moreandmorelinguistsbecometonoticeeuphemismsformedthroughgrammaticaldevices.Sucheuphemismsareusedbyspeakerswithacertainpurpose.Onlythroughthecontext,canlistenersfigureoutspeakers’specialintention.

3.4.1Usingthepasttense

InwrittenEnglishthepasttenseismostlyusedtoexpressanactionorafacthappenedinacertainpointoftimeinthepast.ButinoralEnglish,thepasttensecanreplacethepresenttensetomakethemeaningofthesentencessoundsmorepoliteandmild.

(1)Doyouwantmetohelpyou?

(2)Didyouwantmetohelpyou?

(3)Iwonderifyoucandomeafavor.

(4)Iwonderedifyoucoulddomeafavor.

Sentences(1)and(3)usethepresenttenseandsentences(2)and(4)usethepasttense,andtheyareallgrammaticallyright.Butsentences(2)and(4)soundmorepleasant,fortheymeanthatwhatthespeakerssayhappenedinthepast,sothelistenerswillnotfeelembarrassediftheyhavedifferentanswersfromthespeakers’atthetimebeing.

(5)Wouldn’titbebetterforustostartoffalittleearliertomorrow?

(6)ThisissomethingIshouldadviseyounottodo.

Byusingthepasttenseofmodelauxiliaryverbs,theabovesentencesputforwardapoliteproposalinsteadofaharshone.

3.4.2Usingthesubjunctivemood

ThesubjunctivemoodinEnglishismainlyusedtoexpressdoubt,wishes,orpossibility.WhenusedinspokenEnglish,onecanachieveabettercommunicationeffectthanwithindicativemoodorimperativemood.Herearesomeexamples:

(7)IfIwereyou,Iwouldnotgothere.

(8)Ifhebefoundguilty,hismembershipwouldbesuspended.

(9)Itisessentialthatherecognizehisfault.

3.4.3Usingthepassivevoice

InEnglish,thepassivevoiceisusedtoavoidmentioningthedoer,especiallywhenexpressingcriticism.Herearetwoexamples:

(10)Itisgenerallyconsiderednotacceptabletoactthatway.

(11)Thisbookwasnotwellwritten.

Insentence(10),thepassivevoiceistactfullyusednottoindicatewhoactsthatway.Insentence(11),thespeakerdoesnotmentionwhoisthewriterinordernottohurtthepersonconcerned.

3.4.4Usingparentheses

Parenthesesarealsousedtoformeuphemisms.Andaparenthesiscanbeaword,aphraseorasentence,suchas,“Ithink”,“Iguess”,“I’mafraid”,“Isuppose”,“Iwonder”,“itseems”,and“itissaid”.Theyareusedtomakeastatementlessdirectorlessstrong.Herearesomeexamples:

(12)Theman,itseems,istheonewholivesnextdoortoTim.

(13)This,Ithink,isaverygoodwaytoimproveyourEnglishstudy.

With“itseems”and“Ithink”thetwosentencessoundmoremodestandlessrighteous.

3.4.5Using“please”

Outofkindnessandpoliteness,theword“please”isusedasaeuphemisticdevice.Examples:

(14)Nophotos,please.

(15)Closethedoor,please.

(16)Children,please!Iamtryingtowork.

Insentence(14),“please”isemployedonasigntosaythatsomethingisnotallowedpolitely.Sentence(15)uses“please”asapolitewayofaskingsomebodytodosomething.Sentence(16)employs“please”asamildcriticism,toasksomebodytostopbehavingbadly.

3.4.6Usingtagquestions

Aphrasesuchas“isn’tit?”,“won’tit”,or“doesn’tshe”isaddedtotheendofasentencetomakeitaquestionortoaskyoutoagreewiththeabovestatementpolitely.Examples:

(17)Let’sgofishingthisafternoon,shallwe?

(18)Turnnonthelightforme,willyou?

3.5Rhetoricaldevices

Someeuphemismsareinventedbyrhetoricalmeansasfollows.

3.5.1Usingmetaphor

InEnglish,manyeuphemismsthemselvesarevividandpopularmetaphors,soitisnecessarytofindoutwhat“metaphor”means.Ametaphoremploysawordoraphrasetoindicatesomethingdifferentfromtheliteralmeaning.Peopleseldomsay“hedied”but“hewenttosleepforever”or“hewenttohislonghome”.Here,“gotosleepforever”and“gotoone’slonghome”arebothmetaphorsandeuphemisms.Moreexamplesare:

(19)HeisHamlet.

(20)Hisplaniscastleintheair.

(21)JohniscarryingcoalstoNewcastle.

Sentence(19)means“heisindecisive”,sentence(20)means“hisplanisdaydream”,andsentence(21)hasthesamemeaningwith“Johniswastingtimeandenergy”.Euphemismscreatedbythiswayalsoappearinliteraryworks.Hereisanexample:

(22)“thereforeitisbettertobeaguestofthelaw,whichthoughconductedbyrules,doesnotinterferetoowithagentleman’sprivateaffairs.”14

Insentence(22),“tobeaguestofthelaw”meansto“beinprison”,buttheformerisapleasantsubstitution.Soapywouldratherspendhiswintersinprisonthangetsomehelpfromcharityorganizations,forifhewantstogethelpfromcharities,hisprivateaffairswillbeinterfered.

3.5.2Usingunderstatement

Forthesakeofpolitenessandpleasantness,peopleoftenuseanotherformationcalledunderstatement,which,isnottostatesomethingfullyoradequately.Understatement,asthewordsuggests,is“astatementthatisnotstrongenoughtoexpresshowgood,bad,impressiveetcsomethingreallyis.”15“Understatementachievesitseffectofemphasizingafactbydeliberatelyunderstatingit.”16

“Understatementisusuallydividedintolitotesandmeiosis.Litotesisunderstatementbyusinganegativestatementinsteadofapositiveone”17.Examples:

(23)Sheisveryugly.---Sheisnotparticularlygood-looking.

(24)Hewasquiterich.---Hewasamanofnomeanwealth.

Insentence(23),“notparticularlygood-looking”ismoreneutralandvaguethan“ugly”,sotheemploymentofthiseuphemismsuccessfullyavoidsannoyingthepersonconcerned.Sentence(24)hassomethingtodowithpersonalaffairs.Westernersdon’tlikeotherstotalkabouttheirprivateaffairs.Wealthbelongstoone’sprivacy,soitismorepolitetousearoundaboutwaytotalkaboutitwhenyouhaveto.

“Meiosisismerelyunderstatementwithouttheuseofnegatives”18.Examples:

(25)Herdaughterisinprison.---Herdaughterlivesunderthegovernment’sexpense.

(26)Ican’tpromise.---Sorry,thisisinfactmorethanIcanpromise.

“prison”insentence(25)isanunpleasantword.Generalspeaking,peoplearesensitivetotheword“prison”ifoneisinprison,youhadbetteravoidmentioning“prison”infrontofhisrelatives.Sentence(26)isarefusal.Whenyourefusesomeone,indirectwordswillgetabetterresult,fortheywillnotmakehimloseface.

Byusingunderstatements,thespeakersdonotseemtobesocrueltootherswhomtheyspeaksomethingupsettingto.

3.5.3Usingmetonymy

MetonymyisanotherveryusefulrhetoricalmeanstoformEnglisheuphemisms.Itusesthenameofonethingtosubstitutethatofanother.Byusingit,someunpleasantexpressionscanbeavoided.Metonymycanbefurtherdividedintothefollowing.

(ⅰ)Substitutingthetypicalcharacteristicsofapersonfortheperson

Forexample,

(27)Grayhairsshouldberespected.

Intheabovesentence,“Grayhairs”isemployedtoreplace“oldpeople”,forgrayhairisoneofthetypicalcharacteristicsofoldpeople.Since“old”isatabooinEnglish-speakingcountriespeopleexpressitwitheuphemisticwords.

(ⅱ)Substitutingthewholeforthepart

Forexample,

(28)Shehasagoodchest.

Insentence(28),“chest”means“breast”.Peopleconsider“breast”asanungracefulword,sotheyuseroundaboutwaytomentionit.

(ⅲ)Substitutingthetoolsfortheactionorthething

Forexample,

(29)DuringtheWorldWarⅡHitlerattendedtocarryfireandswordintoEverypartoftheworld.

Insentence(29),“fireandsword”hasthesamemeaningwith“war”.Inwesterners’eyes,fireisthesymbolofhopeandswordisthesymbolofjustice.Aswarmakespeoplethinkofmisery,theyusuallydon’tmentionitdirectly.Here,“fireandsword”isusedtocreateasenseofsatire.

(30)Sellingcardsisforbidden.

“cards”insentence(30)means“drugs”.“drug”isasensitivewordasithassomethingtodowithcrimeanddecadence,soitisofteneuphemized.Peopleuse“card”toreferto“drug”forthereasonthatdrugdealersputdisposabledrugsintofoldingpostcardsandsendthemtodrugaddicts.

(ⅳ)Substitutingthenameofaplacefortheperson

Forexample,

(31)Tomissuccessfulinhiscareerbuthewasabrostal.

“Brostal”intheabovesentencemeans“youngcriminal”.“Brostal”isthenameofalocalityinBritain.Becausethefamousyoungcriminalscenterislocatedthere,peopleusethenameofittoreplace“youngcriminal”.

4.CalcificationofEnglisheuphemisms

Englisheuphemismsinvolvesinalmosteveryfieldoflife.Thispapertriestoclassifythemaccordingtothecontent.

4.1Inthefieldofdailylife

4.1.1Aboutoldage

Itisnaturalforpeopletoexperienceadult,middleage,oldageanddeath.Buttowesterners,oldagemeansworthlessandtheoldwillbelookeddownuponorevendeserted.Sonooneadmitsthatheisold.Peopledreadaboutoldagesomuchthattheyseetheword“old”asataboo.Thus,theytrytheirbesttoborrowotherwordstoexpressit,e.g.:“theadvancedinage”,“themature”,“thelongerliving”,“seasonedman”,“seniorcitizens”,etc.Inshort,westernnationshave“seniorcitizens”or“thelongerlived”butno“oldage”.

4.1.2Aboutunemploymentandpoverty

Unemploymentisstillabigsocialprobleminwesterncountries.Itissodreadedthatitalmostmakespeoplebecomeshiveringwhentheythinkofit,particularlyduringperiodsofeconomiccrisis.Andonceyouareoutofwork,povertyistheinevitableresult.Wholikestoliveapoorlife?Thus,unemploymenthasbecomeahottopicinpoliticalcompetition.Nearlyeverycandidatelooksonthelowunemploymentrateasoneofhisorhertrumpstowin.Moreandmorepeoplegetusedtobeconsideratewhentheywanttomentionunemploymentandpoverty.Asaresult,manyvagueexpressionsorwordsarecreatedtoreplacethem.Forexample,whenthebosswantedtodismissJohn,hewas“l(fā)aidoff”,“easedout”or“giventhewalkingticket”andhebecamea“l(fā)ay-offworker”.Atfirsthewas“outofpocket”and“l(fā)ivedinreducedcircumstances(penniless)”,thenhe“l(fā)ivedindifficulties(indebt)”,laterhehadnochoicebutto“moveintoasub-standardhousing(slums)”.Besides,“Thepoor”is“thehave-nots”,“theunderprivileged”or“thedisadvantaged”.Andtherearenopoorcountriesintheworldfortheyarereplacedby“developingnations”or“emergingnations”.Whentheseeuphemismsareheardfromthepeople,theyareusedtosoftenharshreality,butwhengovernmentsusethem,theyarechangedintodeceivingwords.

4.1.3Aboutmenialjobsandprofessions

Therearemanypeoplewhoundertakehumblejobsthatarelookeddownuponbythepublic.Forthesakeofpoliteness,peopleuseupgradingeuphemismsto“uplift”thesejobsbyname,notbystatus.Examples:

(32)Maryalwaysturnstoherunclewhenthereissomethingwrongwithhershoesforheisashoerebuilder.

(33)Supervisorsarestrictandmeantoworkers.

(34)Themainworkoftreesurgeonsistomakegoodoftrees.

(35)Weneedapipeengineerbecausethepipeinourkitchenisdripping.

Intheabovesentences,“cobbler”,“foremen”,“treetrimmers”and“plumber”arereplacedrespectivelyby“shoerebuilder”,“supervisors”,“treesurgeons”and“pipeengineer”.And“hairdresser”issubstitutedby“beauticianorhairstylist”;“floor-sweeper”isreplacedby“custodianengineer”;“hiregirl”isspokenas“domesticengineer”;“rat-catcher”issubstitutedby“pestcontroloperator”;“washwoman”isreplacedby“clothesrefresher”,andsoon.Allthesewordsareusedforthesamepurpose:toavoidoffendingpeoplewithhumblejobs.Theusageofoccupationaleuphemismsreflectsasenseofinferiorityaswellasastrivingfor“betterthings”.

4.1.4Aboutmenstruation

Thedesiretoescapefromunpleasantfeelingsbringsoutmanyeuphemismsonexcretionofwomen.Menstruationeuphemismisoneofthem.Suchas“tohaveavisitor”;“myfriendhascome”;andsoon.Alloftheseeuphemismsareusedtoavoidthefeelingofembarrassmentanddistaste.

4.2Inthefieldofeducation

Teachershavetomakecommentsonstudents.Whentheywanttopointoutshortcomingsorbadbehaviorofstudents,theyoftenuseroundaboutwaysinordernottohurtstudentsandtheirparents.Thefollowingaresomemostlyusedeuphemismsinthisfieldandtheirrealmeanings.

“(36)Thestudentisobtuse.---Thestudentisabitslowforhisage.Thestudentsseemstobementallyretarded.

(37)Hehasfailed(flunked)amajorcourse.---I’msorrytofindhimanunderachieverforamajorsubject.

(38)Thestudentislazy.---Thestudentneedstoraisehisambitionabit.I’mafraidthestude

nthastoexerthimselfinhisstudy.Heissuretogofarifhecanusehisresourcesfully.He’llgosomewhereifheishighlymotivated.

(39)Thestudentisnoisy.---Heneedstodevelopquieterhabitsofcommunication.

(40)Thestudentisabully.---Heneedshelpinlearningtouseisleadershipqualitiesdemocratically

(41)Helies.---Hehasdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenimaginaryandfactualinformation.

(42)Thestudentcheats.---Heneedshelpinlearningtorespectthepropertyrightofothers.

(43)Thestudentmustmendhisway.–Heneedstobebroughtbackintothemainstream.”19

4.3Inthefieldoflaw

Sincecrimesaretabooedinmanysocialsituations,peoplecreatealargenumberofeuphemismstoreplacethem.Hereisalistofcrimesandtheircorrespondingeuphemisms.

CrimesEuphemisms

crooked,fraudulentfree-wheeling

thieffivefingers,adip,afork

violenceaction

murdertakecareof

prostitutebrass,daughterofeve

heroinBigHarry

opiumblackstuff

4.4Inthefieldofpolitics

Politicsisoneofthefertilefieldsforthegrowthofeuphemisms.Witheuphemisms,politiciansalwaysjustifytheiractionsandbeautifytheharshrealitiesforsomecertainpurposes.Onlywhenthepublicbelievesthatthesocietyundertheirleadhasbecomebetter,cantheirpoliticallifesurvives.Thelistofsuchkindofeuphemismsisendless,e.g.:“economiccrisis”isreplacedby“depression”or“recession”;“strike”issaidtobe“industrialaction”;“aggression”isspokenas“preemptiveaction”,“policeaction”or“anti-terroristaction”;“civiliancasualties”issubstitutedby“collateraldamage”;“killingofcitizens”iseuphemizedas“wastingtheenemy”;“concentrationcamps”isreplacedby“strategicvillagesorhamlets”;“retreat”issaidtobe“strategicwithdrawal”;“groundwar”isspokenas“groundoperation”;etc.“Thiskindofeuphemismsisusedtocoverupthetruenatureofsomepoliticalevents,misleadingthepublicwithpleasantandsweetwords.”20

4.5Inthefieldofcommerceandindustry

Euphemismscanalsobeseenintheareaofcommerceandindustry.Example:

(44)Johnwasoutofgameandhejumpedfromthe20thfloorofabuildingoutofdesperation.

(45)Sheisanegativesaverforshealwaysbuyssomethingexpensivebutunnecessarysoshehastoborrowmoneyfromothersattheendofeachmonth.

Intheabovesentences,“bankrupt”and“overspender”aresubstitutedby“outofgame”and“negativesaver”.

Somecompaniesarenotlargeenoughtobecalledlargecompanies,buttheydon’twanttouse“fairlylarge”todescribethemselvesforthesenseofdignity.So“substantial”isemployedtoreplace“fairlylarge”,intheeuphemisticexpression“asubstantialandwell-diversifiedgroupcompanies”.Inthisfield,“small”isregardedasataboowordtoo,sopeopleusemanynice-soundingwordstosubstituteit.InEurope“acompact”isequalto“asmallcar”.And“asubcompact”means“atypeofverysmallandinexpensivecar”.Asitisinexpensive,itisattractivetopeople.Sometimes“small”isreplacedby“intimate”or“l(fā)imited”.Aseverybodyknows,“anintimategathering”isusually“asmallgathering”.“cheap”isanothertabooword.Peopledon’tliketousetheword“cheap”.Instead,theyuseitseuphemisms,suchas“l(fā)ow-cost”,“realisticallypriced”,or“economypriced”.Inordertoattractcustomers,shopkeepersuse“premium-priced”todescribe“expensive”.So,“premium-pricedScotches”infactis“themostexpensiveScotches”.

5.ThesocialfunctionofEnglisheuphemisms

5.1Forevasion

Sincedeathisinevitable,ithasbecomethefearofallhumanbeing.Inearlytime,peopleseldommentioneddeathdirectlybecausetheyweresuperstitiousaboutit.Theybelievedthatdeathwasadevilthatcanhearhuman’svoice.Soifyouspeakofit,itwillappear.Thus,thereweremanyeuphemismsabouttheword“die”suchas“breatheone’slast”and“jointhemajority”.

Diseaseisanotherfearofman.Inprimitivesociety,asthelevelofmedicinewasverylow,peoplescarcelysurvivedwhentheygotsick.Tothem,diseasewasasdreadfulasdeath.Sotheydidn’tspeakitdirectlyeither.Inmodernsociety,althoughmanydiseasescanbecured,peoplearestillafraidofthem.Ontheonehand,thepatientsuffersalotfromit;ontheotherhand,theexpenseisaheavyburdentothefamilyespeciallythepoor.Thecommonresultisthatthepatientregainshishealthbutthewholefamilyhastoliveapoorlifeformanyyearsorevenalltheirlives.Thus,peopleusuallyuseeuphemisticwordswhentheymentionthenamesofdisease.Forexample,the“BigC”replaces“cancer”an

d“AIDS”substitutes“acquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome”.

InChinesepeople’eyes,westernersarequiteopen-minded.Butthisdoesnotmeanthattheytalkaboutallthewordsrelatedtosexfreely.“Exceptforsomemedicaltermsinaspecialsituation,theymayuseeuphemisticwordstotalkaboutit”21.Suchas,“tohavesex”and“tomakelove”.Wordsaboutthebirtharealsoseldommentioneddirectlybecausetheymakepeoplethinkofsex.Whenawomanispregnant,sheisdescribedas“tohaveonewatermelononthevine”;“inaparticularcondition”;“tohaveoneontheway”,etc.

5.2Forpoliteness

ThePursuitofbeautyisthenatureofhumanbeing.Beautyhelpsonefeelconfidentwhileuglinessmakesonehaveasenseofinferiority.Soitisimpoliteevenoffensivetosaysomeoneisuglydirectly.Whenpeoplewanttoexpresssomeoneisugly,theyusuallysay“Heisplainlooking”or“Sheisnotpretty”,etc.Withtheimprovementoflivingstandard,moreandmorepeoplehaveaweightproblem.Variousproductsoflosingweightfloodintothemarketforbeingtoofatisnotonlyaproblemofappearancebutalsoaproblemofhealth.Obesitybringsinconvenienceaswellastheriskofmanydiseases.Therefore,therearealotofeuphemismsaboutfatnesslike“plump”,“chubby”or“tubby”,etc.“Skinny”isanotherunpleasantword.Noonelikestobedescribedas“skinny”,buttheywillbereallypleasedwhentheyhearothersdescribethemas“slim”or“slender”.

Thedisabledneedhelpandprotectionbuttheyaresensitive,too.Sopeoplehavetochoosetheirwordscarefullywhentheytalkaboutthem.Manyeuphemisticwordsaredesignedtoavoidmentioningthehandicapped.“deaf”isreplacedby“hardofhearing”;“cripple”iseuphemizedas“theinconvenienced”,andsoon..

5.3Forelegance

Excrementisadisgustingtopicinpoliteconversation.Theyareavoidedbymeansofeuphemisms.“Defecation”referstooneofthesickestelementsintheworld.Whenyougotoseeadoctorforastomachupset,thedoctorwillaskyou,“Howisyourbowelmovement?”Andifhewantstohaveafurtherexamination,hewillneedaspecimenofyourmanure.Ifsomeoneroundshisthumbandindexfingeruptoformtheletter“C”withotherfingersstretchingout,hewantstogotoW.C.Thereareotherexpressionshavingthesamemeaning,like“tosingasong”,“toseethemoon”,“answerthenature’scall”,“doone’sbusiness”orsimply“Excuseme”.

Somepartsofbodyareassociatedwithsex,sotheyareavoidedbeingsaiddirectly.Thisgeneratesalargenumberofeuphemisms.“bigbroweyes”,“bust”or“coconuts”referstofemale’sbreasts;“naturals”,“affair”or“tails”suggestsexorgansofhumanbeing,etc.Likepartsofbody,nakednessisataboooutofembarrassmentorshame.AccordingtotheBible,AdamandEveatethewisefruit,foundthemselvesnakedandfeltveryashamed.TheyhidthemselvesbehindthebushwhentheLordcametoseethem.Thentheyusedfigleavestocoverimportantpartsoftheirbodies.Thisstorydemonstratesthat“nakedness”hasbeenatabooforalongtime.Therearemanyeuphemisticwordsaboutnakedness,like“altogether”and“inone’sbirthdaysuit”.Onceamanwasbathingwithoutlockinghisdoor,oneofhisfriendsrushedintohisroomforemergencyandfoundhewasnaked.Theybothfeltembarrassed.Thenthemanwithnothingonsaid,“YouaretheonebesidesmymotherwhohasseenIaminmybirthdaysuit”.Bothofthemimmediatelyburstintolaughter.

5.4Fordisguise

Everythinghasmeritsanddemerits,andeuphemismisnottheexception.“Oneofthecharacteristicsofeuphemismsisitsvagueness.”22Sotheyareemployedtoconcealharshandunpleasantthingsincommunications,creatingaharmonyenvironment.Butitisthisspecialfeaturethatcreateschancesforpoliticiansandbusinessmentomakeuseofeuphemismstoachievetheirselfishgoals.

Politiciansarefamousfortheirabilitytoplaywords.Theycaneventurnfactsupsidedown.Theytrytheirefforttopersuadepeoplethattheyliveabetterlifeundertheirleadershiptherebytogetsupportandholdtheirpositions.Oneoftheeffectivemethodstheyuseistheusageofeuphemisms.Therefore,manyeuphemismsaboutpoliticscanbeseen.Forexample,“l(fā)ogisticalstrikes”isfor“bombingattacks”;“defoliation”isfor“destroyingcrops”,andsoon.

Ifyouwanttosurvivethesharpcommercialcompetition,youhavetokeepalertandattractcustomers,thesourcesofbenefits,bymeansofadvertisements.Euphemismisacommonbutsuccessfulwayusedincommercialadvertisements,foritseemsthateverybodypreferscomplimentsandpraisetoharshandupsettingtruth.Airlinecompaniesareexpertsinusingeuphemisms.Theycallthefirst-class“deluxeclass”,thesecond-classbecomes“first-class”andthethird-classis“economicclass”,“businessclass”or“touristclass”.Inthiscase,passengersinthethird-classwillnotfeelinferioranddon’tlosetheirfaceswhentheytellotherstheytakethe“economicclass”,andpassengersinotherclassesareupliftedatthesametime.

Euphemismthatfunctionsasdisguiseisakindofdeceitfortheycoverupthefactofmatters.

6.Conclusion

Theemergenceofeuphemismsiscloselyrelatedtolanguagetaboosandreligion.Euphemismsareformedthroughvariousdeviceslikephoneticdevices,spellingdevices,vocabularydevices,grammaticaldevicesandrhetoricaldevices.Euphemismsarenowusedinalmostallfieldsoflifesuchasindailylife,inthefieldofeducation,etc.Theyperformthefunctionofevasionwhentheyareusedtoreplacetaboos.Besidesevasion,theyareemployedforpoliteness,eleganceanddisguise.Sinceeuphemismsplayanimportantroleinlanguage,itisagoodwayforEnglishlearnerstoimprovetheirEnglishstudybylearningandemployingEnglisheuphemisms.

Bibliography

1OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionaryz.Extendedfourthedition.Beijing:TheCommercialPress,2002.p491

2LongmanAdvancedAmericanDictionaryz.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2003.p485

3ThePaperbackOxfordEnglishDictionaryz.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2003.p281

4馮翠華.英語修辭大全M.北京：外語教學(xué)與研究出版社，2003.p207

5CollinsCobuildStudent’sDictionaryz.Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress,2001.p212

6王麗敏.英漢委婉語對比研究:碩士學(xué)位論文.中國優(yōu)秀博碩士學(xué)位論文數(shù)據(jù)庫,2004.p15

7孫丹.英語委婉語解析J.太原城市職業(yè)技術(shù)學(xué)院學(xué)報,2003,3.p154

8陳文乾.英語委婉語的成因、構(gòu)成方式及適用范圍J.經(jīng)濟(jì)與社會發(fā)展，2004,2.p149

9李國男.辭格與詞匯M.上海:上海外語教育出版社,2002.p199

10畢秀英.英語委婉語研究:碩士學(xué)位論文.中國優(yōu)秀博碩士學(xué)位論文數(shù)據(jù)庫,2003.p4

11同注10,p5

12彭曉春.英漢委婉語的比較研究:碩士學(xué)位論文.中國優(yōu)秀博碩士學(xué)位論文數(shù)據(jù)庫,2003.p30

13王西巧.英語委婉語的表現(xiàn)手法及產(chǎn)生的心理基礎(chǔ)J.洛陽工學(xué)院學(xué)報(社會科學(xué)版)，2000,2.p61

14田艷.歐.亨利短篇小說精選(英漢對照)z.大連:大連理工大學(xué)出版社,2005.p60

15LongmanDictionaryofAmericanEnglishz.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2004.p872

16同注4,p205

17同注4,p205

18同注4,p206

19吳祥云.委婉語的社會功用J.昭通師范高等?？茖W(xué)校學(xué)報,2004,1.pp35-36

20同注4,p212

21段萍.語委婉語語用研究:碩士學(xué)位論文.中國優(yōu)秀博碩士學(xué)位論文數(shù)據(jù)庫,2002.p25

22李勝娟.淺析英語委婉語的掩飾功能J.湖南農(nóng)業(yè)大學(xué)學(xué)報（社會科學(xué)版）,2004,6.p93